Bibliographical note

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However, there are also factors specific to each case that have promoted the in-house conservation of energy. In Denver, the local government has benefited from the mandatory financial contribution made by the local utility company to energy conservation measures, and from energy efficiency programs organized by the US Environment Protection Agency. In Newcastle (NSW), energy utilities have played a significant role by promoting the development of renewable energy projects after changes to energy legislation in NSW that require such companies to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases. Newcastle's leading role in CCP-Australia, and its demonstrated success in delivering reductions in energy use and financial savings, have also lent the energy agenda and those supporting it political credibility within the local authority. In Leicester, an energy management department, energy advice center, and energy agency have been created through funding from external bodies, including the Energy Savings Trust and the European Commission. Energy management has also been encouraged by recent shifts in local government in the UK, as it fits with the ethos of modernizing local government and with approaches to sustainability that stress the need to articulate indicators and measure progress against them.

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This chapter is based on Bulkeley and Betsill (2003) , and the material is reproduced here with the kind permission of Routledge. Harriet Bulkeley would like to thank The Leverhulme Trust and The Newton Trust, University of Cambridge, for funding the Research Fellowship during which time this collaborative research was developed.

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The CCP program coordinated by the Toronto-based International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) is one vehicle through which local authorities have developed strategies for controlling greenhouse gas emissions. ICLEI's involvement in the climate change issue began in 1991 with the Urban CO 2 Reduction Project, which was designed “to develop comprehensive local strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and quantification methods to support such strategies” ( ICLEI, 1997 ). This pilot project, which was sponsored by the US Environmental Protection Agency, the City of Toronto, and several private foundations, involved 14 municipalities in Europe and North America. Based on the success of the project, ICLEI launched the CCP program in 1993.

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These case studies were developed during 1998–2001 through three different research projects: “Global Sustainability in an Urban Form: The Impacts and Implications of ICLEI's Cities for Climate Protection Programme,” conducted by Bulkeley in the UK and Australia 1999–2001 with support from the Nuffield Foundation and the Smuts Memorial Fund; “Localizing Global Climate Change,” conducted by Betsill in the US during 1999–2000 as part of the Global Environmental Assessment Project, Belfer Centre for Science and International Affairs, Harvard University with support from the National Science Foundation (Award No. BCS-9521910); and “Valuing the Global Environment,” doctoral research conducted in Australia by Bulkeley in 1995–1998, with support from the University of Cambridge, the Smuts Memorial Fund, and the Sir Robert Menzies Centre for Australian Studies, London. This support is gratefully acknowledged, though the views represented in this chapter are those of the authors alone. While the methods used in each project varied to some extent, they all involved conducting semi-structured interviews with key actors at local, national, and international levels, as well as the analysis of policy documents and grey literature.